Turning the Tide

Of all changes occurred in the last two decades, the most impressive
was the massive entrance of Brazilian women into the nation's workforce.
They are in the Army, the Brazilian Academy of Letters,
and all the government branches. The first woman was just appointed
to the 11-seat Supreme Federal Tribunal.

Marta Alvim

Nearly sixty years ago, songwriters Ataulfo Alves and Mário Lago teamed up to compose what would become one of the most enduring hits in the history of Brazilian popular music. It was an unpretentious samba, called Ai, que saudades da Amélia, and it struck a chord with both male and female audiences throughout Brazil. Lago's lyrics rhapsodized about a former lover—Amélia, "a mulher de verdade" (the real woman)—who had stuck by her partner faithfully under the most excruciating circumstances.

That samba so accurately mirrored society's entrenched view on the "proper" role of females that before long, Amélia was unofficially incorporated into the (Brazilian) Portuguese vernacular. According to the Aurélio Dictionary (Brazil's most prestigious), Amélia is synonymous with "a woman who accepts all sorts of afflictions and/or abuse, without complaining, for the love of her man." Even today's generation of young Brazilians knows what "ser uma Amélia" (to be an Amélia) means, although the number of Brazil's Amélias has since dwindled considerably.

Brazilian women have arrived at the end of the 20^th century with a long list of achievements to celebrate. Be they famous or unknown, they've achieved the right to vote and decide what to do with their own bodies with regards to birth control. They have stormed the workplace and taken over traditionally held male realms. They have demanded and succeeded in putting a stop to the impunity bestowed upon wife killers, who invariably got acquitted for their "crimes of passion" by pleading the "honor defense" on the grounds of wife's adultery.

It hasn't been easy to overcome cultural barriers against Brazilian women, especially since the laws of the nation only reinforced women's marginal role in society. Until the early '60s, Brazil's Civil Code recognized only the man as the sole head of the household, and it greatly restricted women's rights concerning fundamental aspects of her life. By getting married, for instance, women became subject to their husbands' authorization just to sign a work contract; to open a checking or savings account; to travel abroad; and she did not even have a say when it came down to deciding where the couple would set up residence.

In 1962, those resolutions were stripped off the Civil Code, and the following years were marked by significant changes. For one thing, women's enrollment in Brazilian universities soared, and that in turn increased their presence in less traditional areas of the job market. However, it wasn't until the mid '70s that the first organized women's groups started to blossom and to spread all over the country.

The Feminist Movement

Although the ideas of American feminist Betty Friedan and French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir were discussed and debated by Brazilian women in the early stages of Brazil's feminism, Brazilian women's movements have always been more active and successful in dealing with concrete social issues. Whereas in the United States women were proclaiming free love, in Brazil the Female Movement Against High Prices was demanding more food for the nation's households. And while hordes of French women took to the streets of Paris, demanding the right to have an abortion, in Brazil the Female Movement for Amnesty was confronting the military dictatorship, which then ruled Brazil with an iron fist. Thousands of husbands had either disappeared or been arrested under the military rule, and women were fighting to bring them home.

However, this doesn't mean to say that no reshaping of Brazilian attitudes towards women was taking place on other fronts. The media began to openly discuss issues related to women's sexuality, including some that had been taboo subjects before, such as lesbianism and birth control. Plays, movies and TV soap operas also reveled in these new sources of inspiration and reference.

In 1980, Malu Mulher (Malu Woman) was the most popular and successful TV program in Brazil. In its weekly episodes, it depicted the daily struggles and achievements of a divorcée—Malu. Divorce had been legalized three years prior to that, in 1977, and Malu Mulher symbolized the doubts and expectations of Brazilian women at that time. In addition, none other than Regina Duarte had been chosen to star as Malu. The famous actress, nicknamed the "Namoradinha do Brasil" (Brazil's Sweetheart, due to the docile roles she played in numerous soap operas) had been the archetype of a submissive woman, through the characters she impersonated on TV. So out went Ai que saudades da Amélia, and in came Começar de Novo (Starting Over), the Malu Mulher theme song by Ivan Lins and Vitor Martins, which became the hit of the season.

It was also during the mid '70s and the early '80s that Brazilian feminists waged a relentless campaign targeting violence against women by pressuring the judicial system into properly prosecuting and punishing those so-called crimes of passion which previously had been committed with impunity. For centuries, Brazil's legal system condoned the murder of unfaithful wives, companions and lovers. During the colonial period, a man could use the honor defense if he had caught his wife in the act of adultery and killed her, or her lover. Although the Brazilian Penal Code officially abolished this type of defense in 1830, this practice nonetheless continued to be widely used in 20^th century modern Brazil.

The women's upheaval came in the wake of several infamous, high-profile murders, whose victims were, among others, Angela Diniz, shot by playboy Doca Street; Eliane de Grammont, murdered by popular bolero singer Lindomar Castilho; Eloisa Balesteros, killed by her wealthy mineiro (from Minas Gerais State) husband, just to name a few. With the slogan Quem ama não mata (He, who loves, doesn't kill) and by staging widely publicized street protests, demonstrations and petitions, Brazilian feminists managed to mobilize the nation around their cause. In 1985, the governor of São Paulo State, Franco Montoro, created the first specialized women's police station (DEAM) to assist the female population. Today, there are 255 DEAMs across the country.

However, of all the changes that occurred in the last two decades, the most impressive was the massive entrance of Brazilian women into the nation's workforce. They have gained access to once-exclusive male enclaves such as the Army, the police force, the Brazilian Academy of Letters, the judicial system, and the legislative and executive branches of government. Just last October, President Fernando Henrique Cardoso appointed the first woman to the 11-seat Supreme Federal Tribunal, Brazil's highest court.

Work Conditions

In 1970, 18.5 percent of Brazilian women worked outside the home. A recent study conducted by Seade Foundation (an entity linked to the government of São Paulo State) shows that women now represent 51 percent of Brazil's workforce, compared to 47 percent in 1994. The same study reveals that 43 percent of the country's women have a High School diploma, compared to 35 percent six years ago.

Another revealing indication of the widespread participation of women in Brazil's job market comes from the income tax returns of Brazil's working population. Data provided by the Secretariat of Federal Revenue confirm that women are active in nearly all professional categories and have even surpassed their male counterparts in several of those. (See accompanying chart.)

In the corporate world, changes are evident as well, although women are still the minority in decision-making positions. One remarkable exception is Maria Silvia Bastos Marques, now CEO of National Steel Company (CSN). Last year, she was the only woman featured among the twelve most important business personalities selected by Time magazine. Ironically, until three years ago, the very same CSN didn't have any female restrooms at its industrial unit in the town of Volta Redonda.

Other companies, such as Merrill Lynch, are hiring an increasing number of female workers. Of the 244 people employed by Merrill Lynch's Brazilian branch, 42 percent are women, but only a third occupies high-ranking positions. Carmaker Citroën is betting on a bolder hiring approach, though. Last October, the company opened a São Paulo dealership in which all of the employees—from management to reception and security, as well as all the mechanics—are female. Citroën's decision was made after company research revealed that the women's opinions are decisive in the sale of seven out of ten cars in Brazil.

However, not all that is well ends well. On average, Brazilian working women still earn 60 percent of what their male counterparts earn in the same position. In the United States, that difference has been decreasing and is now up to 82 percent.

Much needs to be done to fully implement and enforce the existing labor laws as well, although women's organizations agree that Brazil's labor legislation is relatively satisfactory and even more advanced than in other countries. For instance, Brazilian women are granted 120 days of paid maternity leave, with the State covering 100 percent of their salaries during that period. Other countries offer fewer days, such as Argentina (90 days) and the U.S. (84 days). Legislation in Australia and the United States guarantees job stability, but no payment of wages. In Brazil, problems arise because many companies systematically ignore the labor statutes.

According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), 26 percent of all heads of households (approximately one out of four) in Brazil were women in 1999, compared to 23 percent in 1995. However, rather than a sign of emancipation, the increase in the number of Brazilian female heads of household is more symptomatic of family disintegration and poverty.

Abandoned by their husbands and companions, women are left to fend for themselves, usually with the added responsibility to provide for their children, as their partners often disappear without paying any kind of child support. The situation is tragic, especially among low-income women. Unable to afford private daycare centers and faced with limited choices of public-funded centers, those women often have no choice but to leave their minor children alone in charge of the household and of themselves while they are away at work.

On the other hand, working middle-class women have become increasingly more dependent on hired household help. Approximately 17 million women make a living as domestic workers in Brazil. Few laws are on the books to protect these workers, though. For centuries, Brazilian labor legislation has systematically ignored this professional subcategory, where workers often toil under conditions resembling slavery. Seventy percent of domestic workers are black women, and the majority of them are either the primary, or the only breadwinners in their family.

The average income in households where females are the sole breadwinners is only 2.6 times the minimum wage, versus 6.3 times for families where men are the primary providers. Brazilian feminists have dubbed this phenomenon "the feminization of poverty".

Political representation

Brazilian women still represent only a small fraction of the country's top-level politicians. Although a woman recently was elected mayor of São Paulo, Brazil's largest city, only 7 percent of all federal deputies and senators in the legislative branch are women, and President Cardoso has not yet appointed a single woman to join the government. That could change, though. Today, 55.4 percent of Brazilian voters are females, versus 54.1 percent of male voters.

In the year 2000 municipal elections, women won only 11.5 percent of seats on city councils in 5,500 municipalities and only five of the 26 capital states' mayoral races. However, the number of female mayors countrywide has increased 85 percent in the last three elections, from 171 mayors in 1992 to 317 in 2000.

Until now, no woman has ever been considered to Brazil's vice-presidency, much less to the presidency. If Marta Suplicy, mayor-elect of São Paulo, can prove she's a capable administrator, she might become the second female presidential hopeful, along with Roseana Sarney. Maranhense (from Maranhão state) Sarney, Brazil's only female governor, has been recognized as a skillful administrator with an exceptional ability to cross party lines.

Health

Brazilian families have changed a great deal over the past few decades. One of the most significant demographic changes is the sharp decline in birth rate. In 1965, the fertility rate was 5.7 children per woman; today, it's 2.3. According to the Civil Society for Family Wellfare in Brazil (Bemfam), 99.6 percent of Brazilian women are aware of some type of modern contraceptive method. However, sterilization is still one of the most frequently used methods of contraception in Brazil. Four out of ten sexually active women of childbearing age have been sterilized.

This situation can be attributed at least in part to negligence in the public health sector, which still lacks a comprehensive healthcare program for the nation's women. Women's organizations, researchers and even government officials all lament the excessive use of sterilization in the country, which borders on abuse. Whereas in developed nations only 7.6 percent of women choose sterilization over other contraceptives, in Brazil 27.3 percent of women opt for this ultimate resource.

In 1986, the Ministry of Health designed a project called PAISM (Program of Integral Attention to Woman's Health) that was supposed to address not only the contraception issue, but also intended to reduce illness and deaths among women and children. Unfortunately, the program has yet to be effectively implemented. As a result, pregnancy-related mortality is still remarkably high—150 deaths per 100 thousand live births. In the United States, that ratio is 10 to 100 thousand. It is estimated that 14 percent of all pregnant women have no prenatal care whatsoever. Moreover, cervical cancer, which is curable and preventable, is now the main cause of death among non-pregnant Brazilian women. Only about 10 percent of Brazilian women undergo periodical Pap smears (a procedure used to detect this type of cancer at an early stage).

Another 10 thousand women die every year as a result of illegal abortions. Still outlawed in Brazil, it is estimated that 1 million clandestine abortions are performed every year. Complications arising from botched procedures are the fifth leading cause of hospitalization in the country, at a cost to the State of nearly $30 million a year. Only recently did the Brazilian Congress pass a bill that will allow women to seek abortions in cases of rape or imminent risk to the woman's life.

On another front, there is an alarming increase in the number of AIDS cases among Brazilian women. International health organizations have praised Brazil's government for its swift actions to prevent this deadly disease, which has dropped sharply among Brazilian men. However, Brazilian health officials acknowledge that they have been unable to stop the spread of the HIV virus among women. Two decades ago, there was one HIV-positive woman for every 27 men; today, there is one for every three. According to the World Health Organization, 100 thousand Brazilian women are now HIV-positive. Sadly, the great majority of infected women are married and were completely unaware that their husbands carried the virus. Many were infected while they were pregnant and therefore not concerned about the use of contraceptives. One important factor is that many women are inhibited in insisting on the use of condoms by their own submissiveness or by intimidation from their husbands or companions.

Behavior

In spite of all the victories and achievements of Brazilian women in the last few decades, make no mistake: machismo is well and alive, and still permeates much of the Brazilian mentality and daily life. Sexual harassment is a reality, but continues to be greatly underreported and unpunished.

Likewise, physical violence against women is still widespread, though largely invisible and not reflected in official statistics. A report released by the United Nations' Commission on Human Rights in 1996 concluded that "…machismo, as it exists in Brazilian society, is imbued with the notion that violence is a natural part of a relationship between men and women, as an indication of passion".

In many activities, gender taboos still prevail, and it will most likely be a long time before they can be eliminated. A case in point is Brazilians' sexist attitude towards female athletes, perceived as being masculinized and often plagued by rumors about their sexual preferences. The gender discrimination extends not only to female soccer players but to basketball and volleyball players as well. Some athletes try to counter that kind of speculation by making public appearances with boyfriends, husbands and children, and even by posing nude for Playboy, as it was the case with basketball star Hortência.

Although more independent due to their substantial participation in today's job market, most Brazilian women still prefer to share a house with a man rather than live alone—no matter who the head of the household may be. According to Bemfam, there has been an increase in the number of couples who, instead of marriage, are opting to live together under the so-called "consensual union". Brazil's Constitution of 1988 sanctioned this type of union by extending the same rights given to married couples to those in such cohabiting relationships. To date, 13% of couples have chosen this path, compared to only 9 percent in 1986.

Marta Alvim is a Brazilian journalist, freelance translator and interpreter. You can reach her at mltdalvim@yahoo.com

The Female Revolution Women are the majority in the following professions: Social Workers 97% Speech Therapists 97% Receptionists and Phone Operators 92% Librarians and Archeologists 92% Nurses and Nutritionists 91% Domestic Workers 90% Psychologists 89% Teachers 77% Beauticians 71% Lawyers 59% Physicians 54% Men and women tie in the following areas: Judicial System Workers 52% Biologists 51% Administrative Assistants 51% Dentists 50% College Professors 50% Architects 50% Artists 49% Civil Servants 48% Journalists 47% Women are the minority in the following segments: Engineers 9% Agronomists 9% Metal Workers 3% Chemists 2% Bricklayers 1% Pilots 1% Longshoremen 0.5% Mechanics 0.5% Source: Secretariat of Federal Revenue

 

The Trailblazers 1534 — Ana Pimentel takes on the administration of São Vicente Province. 1752 — Brazilian Teresa Margarida da Silva Orta is the first woman to publish a book in Portuguese. The book, titled Proverbs on Virtue and Beauty, was published in Portugal. 1814 — Ana Néri, the pioneer of Brazil's nursing movement, is born. 1882 — Maria Augusta Generoso Estrella graduates from New York Medical College and Hospital for Women, becoming Brazil's first female physician. Due to the repercussion of her case, Brazilian higher education schools opened their doors to women in 1881. 1888 — Princess Isabel, Brazil's regent during the second Empire, signs the end of slavery into law. 1899 — Chiquinha Gonzaga, the first Brazilian female songwriter, composes "Ó Abre-Alas", Brazil's first Carnaval tune. 1914 — Eugênia Brandão, hired by carioca (from Rio Janeiro) newspaper A Rua, becomes the first Brazilian female reporter. 1918 — Maria José de Castro Rabelo Mendes is appointed to the Ministry of Foreign Relations, a.k.a. Itamaraty, as the first female diplomat. Initially barred from taking Itamaraty's grueling entrance examination, she eventually took the test and placed first in the examination process. 1922 — Berta Lutz founds the Brazilian Federation for the Advancement of Females, which later becomes a fundamental tool in the movement for the women's right to vote. In 1932, Brazilian women voted for the first time—ahead of France, Switzerland and Argentina. 1922 — Anésia Pinheiro Machado receives her license from the International Aviation Federation, and is the first woman to pilot an airplane in Brazil. 1928 — Alzira Soriano, the first woman to run for office in the country, is elected mayor of Lajes, in Rio Grande do Norte State. 1930 — Gaúcha (from Rio Grande do Sul State) Yolanda Pereira is the first Brazilian to win the Miss Universe pageant. 1932 — Swimmer Maria Lenk is the first Brazilian and South American female to participate in the Olympic Games, which was held in Los Angeles that year. 1933 — Carlota Pereira de Queiroz is the first female elected to Brazil's Lower House. 1939 — Carmen Miranda leaves for the United States and is the first Brazilian woman to succeed in Hollywood. 1947 — Dona Ivone Lara is the first female songwriter welcomed into the composers rank of a Brazilian samba school and is one of the founders of Império Serrano. 1958 — Brazilian Maria Esther Bueno is the youngest tennis player to win the Wimbledon tournament at the age of 18. 1961 — In Germany, Brazilian Márcia Haydée becomes Stutgart Ballet's first ballerina. 1971 — Leila Diniz shocks the country by wearing a bikini in Ipanema Beach while proudly displaying her six-month pregnant belly. 1977 — Writer Rachel de Queiroz is the first woman elected to the Brazilian Academy of Letters. 1979 — Eunice Michiles is elected the first female senator in Brazil. 1982 — Esther de Figueiredo Ferraz, the first Brazilian female minister, is appointed to the Ministry of Education. 1994 — Benedita da Silva is the first Afro-Brazilian woman elected to the nation's Senate. 1994 — Roseana Sarney is elected Brazil's first female governor, in the state of Maranhão. 1996 — Writer Nélida Piñon is the first woman to preside over the Brazilian Academy of Letters. 1999 — Actress Fernanda Montenegro is the first Brazilian woman nominated for an Oscar, for her role in Central do Brasil (Central Station). 2000 - Ellen Gracie Northfleet, the great-granddaughter of an American expatriate who left Virginia for Brazil after the Civil War, is the first female appointed to Brazil's highest court, the Supreme Federal Tribunal. (Female judges already represent approximately 40 percent of all Brazilian judges.)

 

Women in World Politics Parliamentary representation of women in different parts of the world: Europe 15.5 % Asia 14.9% Americas 14.7% Africa 10.9% Brazil 7% Arab nations 4% Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union

 

Ai, que saudades da Amélia (Ataulfo Alves e Mário Lago) Nunca vi fazer tanta exigência Nem fazer o que você me faz Você não sabe o que é consciência Não vê que eu sou um pobre rapaz Você só pensa em luxo e riqueza Tudo que você vê você quer Ai, meu Deus, que saudades da Amélia Aquilo sim é que era mulher Às vezes passava fome ao meu lado E achava bonito não ter o que comer Mas quando me via contrariado Dizia: meu filho, o que se há de fazer ? Amélia não tinha a menor vaidade Amélia é que era mulher de verdade

How do I miss Amélia I've never seen so many demands Neither someone doing all that you do You don't know what's conscience You don't see I'm a poor lad All you can think is luxury and riches All that you see you want to buy Alas, my God, how do I miss Amélia That really was a woman Sometimes she would starve by my side And thought that having nothing to eat was pretty But when she saw me upset She would say: "My son, what can we do!" Amélia wasn't vain in the slightest Amélia surely was a true woman

 

Começar de Novo (Ivan Lins - Vitor Martins) Começar de novo E contar comigo Vai valer a pena Ter amanhecido Ter me rebelado Ter me debatido Ter me machucado Ter sobrevivido Ter virado a mesa Ter me conhecido Ter virado o barco Ter me socorrido Começar de novo E contar comigo Vai valer a pena Ter amanhecido Sem as tuas garras Sempre tão seguras Sem o teu fantasma Sem tua moldura Sem tuas escoras Sem o teu domínio Sem tuas esporas Sem o teu fascínio Começar de novo E contar comigo Vai valer a pena Já ter te esquecido Começar de novo...

Starting over Starting over And counting on me It will be worthwhile That morning has come That I rebelled That I struggled That I hurt myself That I survived That I turned the table That I knew myself That I turned the boat That I rescued myself Starting over And counting on me It will be worthwhile That morning has come Without your claws Always so firm Without your ghost Without your frame Without your crutches Without your control Without your spurs Without your spell Starting over And counting on me It will be worthwhile To have already forgotten you Starting over…

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